40 Cryptography Interview Questions

Introduction

Cryptography is the practice of securing information by converting it into an unreadable format, ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. In an interview, you might be asked about various aspects of cryptography. Common questions include explaining the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption, discussing the concept of key exchange protocols, and exploring cryptographic hash functions. Additionally, you may be asked about different types of attacks on cryptographic systems and how to mitigate them. Understanding these fundamental concepts will help you navigate cryptography interview questions with ease.

Questions

1. What is cryptography?

Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques used to secure communication and data from unauthorized access or modification. It involves encoding information in such a way that only authorized parties can understand it. The main goal of cryptography is to ensure confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation of data.

2. What is encryption?

Encryption is a fundamental technique in cryptography that transforms plaintext (readable data) into ciphertext (unreadable data) using an encryption algorithm and a cryptographic key. The ciphertext can only be decrypted back into the original plaintext by someone who possesses the correct key.

# Example of encryption using the Python cryptography library
from cryptography.fernet import Fernet

def encrypt_data(plaintext, key):
    cipher_suite = Fernet(key)
    ciphertext = cipher_suite.encrypt(plaintext.encode())
    return ciphertext

def decrypt_data(ciphertext, key):
    cipher_suite = Fernet(key)
    plaintext = cipher_suite.decrypt(ciphertext).decode()
    return plaintext

# Example usage:
key = Fernet.generate_key()  # Generate a random encryption key
plaintext_message = "Hello, this is a secret message."
encrypted_message = encrypt_data(plaintext_message, key)
print("Encrypted message:", encrypted_message)

decrypted_message = decrypt_data(encrypted_message, key)
print("Decrypted message:", decrypted_message)

3. What are the two main types of encryption algorithms?

The two main types of encryption algorithms are:

1. Symmetric Encryption: In symmetric encryption, the same key is used for both encryption and decryption. It is fast and suitable for encrypting large amounts of data. However, the challenge lies in securely distributing and managing the secret key.
2. Asymmetric Encryption: Asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys – a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption. Messages encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the corresponding private key. It enables secure communication even if the public key is widely distributed, but it is slower than symmetric encryption.

4. What is a hash function?

A hash function is a one-way mathematical function that takes an input (or ‘message’) of any length and produces a fixed-size output, known as the hash value or hash digest. The key properties of a hash function are:

• It is deterministic, meaning the same input will always produce the same hash value.
• It is quick to compute the hash value for any given input.
• It is infeasible to reverse the process and obtain the original input from the hash value.
• A small change in the input should result in a significantly different hash value.
• It should be resistant to collisions (two different inputs producing the same hash value).

# Example of using a hash function in Python
import hashlib

def calculate_hash(data):
    # SHA-256 is one of the commonly used hash functions
    sha256_hash = hashlib.sha256(data.encode()).hexdigest()
    return sha256_hash

# Example usage:
data_to_hash = "This is the data to hash."
hash_value = calculate_hash(data_to_hash)
print("Hash value:", hash_value)

5. What is a digital signature?

A digital signature is a cryptographic technique used to provide authenticity and integrity to digital messages or documents. It involves using a private key to generate a unique signature for a piece of data, and the recipient can use the corresponding public key to verify the authenticity and integrity of the message.

# Example of generating and verifying a digital signature using the Python cryptography library
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import hashes
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import rsa, padding
from cryptography.hazmat.backends import default_backend

def generate_signature(private_key, data):
    signature = private_key.sign(
        data,
        padding.PSS(
            mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
            salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
        ),
        hashes.SHA256()
    )
    return signature

def verify_signature(public_key, data, signature):
    try:
        public_key.verify(
            signature,
            data,
            padding.PSS(
                mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
                salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
            ),
            hashes.SHA256()
        )
        return True
    except:
        return False

# Example usage:
private_key = rsa.generate_private_key(
    public_exponent=65537,
    key_size=2048,
    backend=default_backend()
)
public_key = private_key.public_key()

data_to_sign = b"This is the data to sign."
signature = generate_signature(private_key, data_to_sign)
print("Signature:", signature)

is_signature_valid = verify_signature(public_key, data_to_sign, signature)
print("Is signature valid?", is_signature_valid)

6. What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption?

7. What is a key exchange algorithm?

A key exchange algorithm is a cryptographic protocol used to securely establish a shared secret (encryption key) between two parties over an insecure channel. The goal is to enable secure communication without the need to pre-share secret keys. Popular key exchange algorithms include Diffie-Hellman (both classic and elliptic curve versions) and RSA key exchange.

# Example of Diffie-Hellman key exchange in Python using the cryptography library
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import dh

def generate_dh_key_pair():
    parameters = dh.generate_parameters(generator=2, key_size=2048, backend=default_backend())
    private_key = parameters.generate_private_key()
    public_key = private_key.public_key()
    return private_key, public_key

def derive_shared_key(private_key, peer_public_key):
    shared_key = private_key.exchange(peer_public_key)
    return shared_key

# Example usage:
private_key_A, public_key_A = generate_dh_key_pair()
private_key_B, public_key_B = generate_dh_key_pair()

# A and B exchange their public keys over an insecure channel
shared_key_A = derive_shared_key(private_key_A, public_key_B)
shared_key_B = derive_shared_key(private_key_B, public_key_A)

print("Shared keys are the same:", shared_key_A == shared_key_B)

8. What is a certificate authority (CA)?

A certificate authority (CA) is a trusted entity or organization responsible for issuing digital certificates that bind public keys to the identities of individuals, servers, or other entities. CAs play a crucial role in establishing the authenticity and trustworthiness of digital certificates in the public key infrastructure (PKI).

9. What is a digital certificate?

A digital certificate is a digital document that binds the identity of an entity (such as a person, organization, or server) to a public key. It contains information about the owner of the certificate, the public key, the certificate’s validity period, and the digital signature of the certificate authority to verify its authenticity.

10. What is SSL/TLS?

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) are cryptographic protocols used to secure communication over a computer network, most commonly the internet. They provide encryption and authentication, ensuring that data transmitted between a client and server remains confidential and has not been tampered with.

SSL was the predecessor of TLS, and TLS versions 1.0 to 1.3 have been developed to address security vulnerabilities found in SSL. TLS 1.3 is the latest version and is considered the most secure.

# Example of using SSL/TLS in Python with the `requests` library (requires installation)
import requests

# Sending a GET request over HTTPS using TLS
response = requests.get("https://www.example.com")
print(response.status_code)

11. What is a brute-force attack?

A brute-force attack is an attack method used by an attacker to try all possible combinations of characters or keys systematically until the correct one is found. For example, in the context of password cracking, an attacker would try all possible passwords until they find the one that grants them access.

12. What is a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack?

A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack is an attack where an attacker intercepts and potentially modifies communication between two parties without their knowledge. The attacker can impersonate both parties to capture sensitive information or alter the messages exchanged.

13. What is a rainbow table?

A rainbow table is a precomputed table used in password cracking to reverse hash values back to their original passwords. It contains a large set of precomputed hash values and their corresponding plaintext passwords, making it faster to look up the original password for a given hash.

14. What is public key infrastructure (PKI)?

Public key infrastructure (PKI) is a system of hardware, software, policies, and procedures used to create, manage, distribute, and revoke digital certificates. It enables secure communication and authentication through the use of public and private key pairs issued by certificate authorities.

15. What is steganography?

Steganography is the practice of concealing secret information within other non-secret data, such as images, audio files, or text. It aims to hide the existence of the secret information, making it harder for unauthorized parties to detect or access it.

16. What is the birthday paradox in cryptography?

The birthday paradox in cryptography refers to the counterintuitive probability that in a relatively small group of people, there is a surprisingly high likelihood of two or more individuals sharing the same birthday. In the context of cryptography, it highlights the increased probability of finding two different inputs with the same hash value (collision) when the number of possible hash values is significantly smaller than the number of potential inputs.

17. What is the difference between confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) in cryptography?

18. What is a side-channel attack?

A side-channel attack is a type of attack where an attacker gathers information from the physical implementation of a cryptographic system, rather than directly attacking the algorithm itself. Information leaks from side channels such as power consumption, electromagnetic radiation, or processing time can be used to deduce secret keys or other sensitive information.

19. What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric digital signatures?

20. What is the difference between block ciphers and stream ciphers?

21. What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric key lengths?

22. What is perfect forward secrecy?

Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS) is a property of cryptographic systems where the compromise of a private key does not affect the confidentiality of past communications encrypted with that key. In other words, even if an attacker gains access to a private key, they cannot decrypt previously recorded communications.

PFS is achieved using certain key exchange algorithms like Diffie-Hellman or ECDH (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman), where a new session key is generated for each session or communication. Even if one session’s key is compromised, the keys used in other sessions remain secure.

23. What is the difference between a hash function and a digital signature?

24. What is a nonce in cryptography?

A nonce (number used once) is a random or unique value that is used only once in a cryptographic communication or protocol. It is typically used to ensure the freshness of data or to add randomness to cryptographic operations, such as generating session keys or preventing replay attacks.

# Example of using a nonce in Python using the `secrets` library (requires Python 3.6+)
import secrets

# Generate a random 16-byte nonce
nonce = secrets.token_bytes(16)
print("Nonce:", nonce.hex())

25. What is a key derivation function (KDF)?

A key derivation function (KDF) is a cryptographic function used to derive one or more secret keys from a single master secret or password. It adds computational effort and introduces salting to prevent brute-force attacks on the original secret.

# Example of using a key derivation function in Python using the `cryptography` library
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.kdf.pbkdf2 import PBKDF2HMAC
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import hashes

def derive_key(master_secret, salt, iterations, key_length):
    kdf = PBKDF2HMAC(
        algorithm=hashes.SHA256(),
        length=key_length,
        salt=salt,
        iterations=iterations
    )
    derived_key = kdf.derive(master_secret)
    return derived_key

# Example usage:
master_secret = b"This is the master secret."
salt = secrets.token_bytes(16)
iterations = 100000  # Number of iterations to make the process slow
key_length = 32  # 32 bytes (256 bits) key length
derived_key = derive_key(master_secret, salt, iterations, key_length)
print("Derived key:", derived_key.hex())

26. What is an initialization vector (IV) in cryptography?

An initialization vector (IV) is a random value used in combination with a cryptographic key in certain encryption modes, such as in block ciphers operating in CBC (Cipher Block Chaining) mode. The IV ensures that identical plaintext blocks encrypt to different ciphertext blocks, adding randomness and preventing patterns from being exposed.

# Example of using an initialization vector in Python using the `cryptography` library
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import rsa, padding
from cryptography.hazmat.backends import default_backend

def encrypt_data(plaintext, key, iv):
    # Encryption using AES in CBC mode
    cipher = Cipher(algorithms.AES(key), modes.CBC(iv), backend=default_backend())
    encryptor = cipher.encryptor()
    padded_plaintext = pad(plaintext, algorithms.AES.block_size)
    ciphertext = encryptor.update(padded_plaintext) + encryptor.finalize()
    return ciphertext

def decrypt_data(ciphertext, key, iv):
    # Decryption using AES in CBC mode
    cipher = Cipher(algorithms.AES(key), modes.CBC(iv), backend=default_backend())
    decryptor = cipher.decryptor()
    padded_plaintext = decryptor.update(ciphertext) + decryptor.finalize()
    plaintext = unpad(padded_plaintext, algorithms.AES.block_size)
    return plaintext

# Example usage:
key = os.urandom(32)  # 32-byte (256-bit) key
iv = os.urandom(16)   # 16-byte (128-bit) IV
plaintext_message = "Hello, this is a secret message."
encrypted_message = encrypt_data(plaintext_message.encode(), key, iv)
print("Encrypted message:", encrypted_message.hex())

decrypted_message = decrypt_data(encrypted_message, key, iv).decode()
print("Decrypted message:", decrypted_message)

27. What is a nonce-based message authentication code (MAC)?

A nonce-based message authentication code (MAC) is a tag generated using a secret key that ensures the authenticity and integrity of a message. It incorporates a nonce (number used once) or initialization vector (IV) along with the message and the key to prevent replay attacks.

# Example of generating a nonce-based MAC using HMAC in Python using the `hmac` library (built-in)
import hmac
import hashlib

def generate_mac(key, data, nonce):
    message = nonce + data
    mac = hmac.new(key, message, hashlib.sha256).digest()
    return mac

def verify_mac(key, data, nonce, mac):
    calculated_mac = generate_mac(key, data, nonce)
    return hmac.compare_digest(mac, calculated_mac)

# Example usage:
secret_key = b"This is the secret key."
message_data = b"This is the message data."
nonce = os.urandom(16)  # 16-byte nonce
mac = generate_mac(secret_key, message_data, nonce)

print("Generated MAC:", mac.hex())
print("MAC is valid:", verify_mac(secret_key, message_data, nonce, mac))

28. What is a chosen-plaintext attack?

A chosen-plaintext attack is a type of cryptographic attack where the attacker can choose specific plaintext inputs and observe their corresponding ciphertext outputs. The goal is to use the observed data to deduce information about the encryption key or reveal weaknesses in the encryption algorithm.

29. What is a chosen-ciphertext attack?

A chosen-ciphertext attack is a type of cryptographic attack where the attacker can choose specific ciphertext inputs and observe their corresponding plaintext outputs. The goal is to use the observed data to deduce information about the decryption key or exploit vulnerabilities in the decryption process.

30. What is a hybrid encryption scheme?

A hybrid encryption scheme combines the strengths of both symmetric and asymmetric encryption. In this scheme, the data is encrypted with a randomly generated symmetric key (session key). The session key is then encrypted using the recipient’s public key (asymmetric encryption) and sent alongside the encrypted data. The recipient can use their private key to decrypt the session key and then use it to decrypt the data.

# Example of hybrid encryption in Python using the `cryptography` library
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization
from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import rsa, padding
from cryptography.hazmat.backends import default_backend

def encrypt_data(plaintext, recipient_public_key):
    # Generate a symmetric key for data encryption
    symmetric_key = os.urandom(32)  # 32-byte (256-bit) key

    # Encryption using AES in CBC mode with the symmetric key
    cipher = Cipher(algorithms.A

ES(symmetric_key), modes.CBC(iv), backend=default_backend())
    encryptor = cipher.encryptor()
    padded_plaintext = pad(plaintext, algorithms.AES.block_size)
    ciphertext = encryptor.update(padded_plaintext) + encryptor.finalize()

    # Encryption of the symmetric key using the recipient's public key (asymmetric encryption)
    encrypted_symmetric_key = recipient_public_key.encrypt(
        symmetric_key,
        padding.OAEP(
            mgf=padding.MGF1(algorithm=hashes.SHA256()),
            algorithm=hashes.SHA256(),
            label=None
        )
    )

    return encrypted_symmetric_key, ciphertext

def decrypt_data(encrypted_symmetric_key, ciphertext, private_key):
    # Decryption of the symmetric key using the recipient's private key (asymmetric decryption)
    symmetric_key = private_key.decrypt(
        encrypted_symmetric_key,
        padding.OAEP(
            mgf=padding.MGF1(algorithm=hashes.SHA256()),
            algorithm=hashes.SHA256(),
            label=None
        )
    )

    # Decryption of the data using the symmetric key
    cipher = Cipher(algorithms.AES(symmetric_key), modes.CBC(iv), backend=default_backend())
    decryptor = cipher.decryptor()
    padded_plaintext = decryptor.update(ciphertext) + decryptor.finalize()
    plaintext = unpad(padded_plaintext, algorithms.AES.block_size)

    return plaintext

# Example usage:
private_key = rsa.generate_private_key(
    public_exponent=65537,
    key_size=2048,
    backend=default_backend()
)
public_key = private_key.public_key()

data_to_encrypt = b"This is the secret data."
encrypted_symmetric_key, encrypted_data = encrypt_data(data_to_encrypt, public_key)

decrypted_data = decrypt_data(encrypted_symmetric_key, encrypted_data, private_key)
print("Decrypted data:", decrypted_data.decode())

31. What is the difference between a salt and an initialization vector (IV)?

32. What is key stretching?

Key stretching is a technique used to make a cryptographic key more resistant to brute-force attacks by increasing the time required to derive the key from a password or a low-entropy source. It involves applying a key derivation function multiple times with iterations to slow down the process and increase the computational effort needed to find the original key.

Key stretching is commonly used when deriving encryption keys from passwords since passwords are typically weak sources of entropy.

33. What is a side-channel-resistant implementation?

A side-channel-resistant implementation is a cryptographic system or algorithm designed to resist side-channel attacks. It ensures that the physical implementation of the algorithm does not leak information through side channels, such as power consumption, timing, or electromagnetic radiation.

34. What is forward secrecy?

Forward secrecy is a property of cryptographic systems where the compromise of a long-term secret (such as a private key) does not affect the confidentiality of past communications protected using temporary session keys. In other words, even if an attacker gains access to the long-term secret, they cannot decrypt previous communications encrypted with session keys.

Forward secrecy is achieved by using key exchange algorithms that generate new session keys for each session or communication.

35. What is the difference between a stream cipher and a block cipher?

36. What is the birthday paradox in the context of cryptography?

The birthday paradox in cryptography refers to the counterintuitive probability that in a relatively small group of people, there is a surprisingly high likelihood of two or more individuals sharing the same birthday. In the context of cryptography, it highlights the increased probability of finding two different inputs with the same hash value (collision) when the number of possible hash values is significantly smaller than the number of potential inputs.

37. What is a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG)?

A cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG) is a type of random number generator that produces random numbers suitable for use in cryptographic applications. It generates numbers that are statistically indistinguishable from true randomness and are not predictable even if partial information about the generated numbers is known.

# Example of generating random numbers using the `secrets` library (requires Python 3.6+)
import secrets

# Generate a random integer between 1 and 100 (inclusive)
random_number = secrets.randbelow(100) + 1
print("Random number:", random_number)

# Generate a random byte string of length 16
random_bytes = secrets.token_bytes(16)
print("Random bytes:", random_bytes.hex())

38. What is the difference between public key infrastructure (PKI) and web of trust?

39. What is a timing attack?

A timing attack is a side-channel attack where an attacker analyzes the variations in the execution time of cryptographic operations to deduce sensitive information, such as secret keys. By measuring the time it takes for an operation to complete, an attacker can infer information about the internal processes and data.

Timing attacks are a type of side-channel attack and require a high level of precision and controlled environments to be successful.

40. What is cryptographic agility?

Cryptographic agility refers to the ability of a cryptographic system to adapt and evolve over time to address new security threats and vulnerabilities. It involves the ability to easily upgrade cryptographic algorithms, key lengths, and protocols without requiring a complete overhaul of the system.

Cryptographic agility is essential to maintain the security of a system against evolving cryptographic attacks and advancements in computing power. It allows organizations to respond quickly to new cryptographic challenges without sacrificing data security.

MCQ Questions

1. What is cryptography?

a) The study of secret writing
b) The study of secret speaking
c) The study of secret communication
d) The study of secret codes

Answer: c) The study of secret communication

2. Which of the following is NOT a goal of cryptography?

a) Confidentiality
b) Integrity
c) Availability
d) Authentication

Answer: c) Availability

3. Which encryption algorithm is commonly used for secure communication over the internet?

a) Caesar cipher
b) RSA
c) DES
d) MD5

Answer: b) RSA

4. Which key is used for both encryption and decryption in symmetric encryption?

a) Public key
b) Private key
c) Session key
d) Shared key

Answer: c) Session key

5. Which cryptographic primitive is used to ensure data integrity?

a) Hash function
b) Symmetric encryption
c) Asymmetric encryption
d) Digital signature

Answer: a) Hash function

6. Which cryptographic algorithm is used to generate a fixed-size output from an arbitrary-size input?

a) Encryption algorithm
b) Hash function
c) Digital signature algorithm
d) Key exchange algorithm

Answer: b) Hash function

7. What is a symmetric encryption algorithm?

a) An encryption algorithm that uses the same key for both encryption and decryption
b) An encryption algorithm that uses different keys for encryption and decryption
c) An encryption algorithm that uses multiple keys for encryption and decryption
d) An encryption algorithm that uses a combination of symmetric and asymmetric keys

Answer: a) An encryption algorithm that uses the same key for both encryption and decryption

8. Which encryption algorithm is a block cipher?

a) AES
b) RSA
c) Diffie-Hellman
d) ElGamal

Answer: a) AES

9. What is the purpose of a digital signature?

a) To encrypt data for secure transmission
b) To verify the integrity and authenticity of data
c) To generate a shared secret key
d) To establish a secure channel between two parties

Answer: b) To verify the integrity and authenticity of data

10. Which key exchange algorithm is commonly used in secure internet communication?

a) RSA
b) Diffie-Hellman
c) ElGamal
d) AES

Answer: b) Diffie-Hellman

11. Which of the following is NOT a symmetric encryption algorithm?

a) DES
b) AES
c) RSA
d) 3DES

Answer: c) RSA

12. Which cryptographic attack attempts to discover the original plaintext from the encrypted ciphertext without knowing the key?

a) Brute-force attack
b) Dictionary attack
c) Man-in-the-middle attack
d) Cryptanalysis

Answer: d) Cryptanalysis

13. What is the purpose of a nonce in cryptography?

a) To ensure key secrecy
b) To prevent replay attacks
c) To generate random numbers
d) To encrypt and decrypt data

Answer: b) To prevent replay attacks

14. Which of the following is NOT a type of cryptographic algorithm?

a) Encryption algorithm
b) Hash function
c) Key exchange algorithm
d) Random number generator

Answer: d) Random number generator

15. Which of the following is an example of a stream cipher?

a) AES
b) RSA
c) DES
d) RC4

Answer: d) RC4

16. Which cryptographic attack involves listening to and recording communication between two parties?

a) Brute-force attack
b) Dictionary attack
c) Man-in-the-middle attack
d) Side-channel attack

Answer: c) Man-in-the-middle attack

17. What is the main disadvantage of symmetric encryption?

a) Slow encryption and decryption process
b) Large key size required
c) Key distribution problem
d) Vulnerability to brute-force attacks

Answer: c) Key distribution problem

18. Which encryption algorithm is commonly used for secure email communication?

a) RSA
b) Diffie-Hellman
c) AES
d) PGP

Answer: d) PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)

19. What is the purpose of a salt in password hashing?

a) To prevent brute-force attacks
b) To generate random numbers
c) To encrypt and decrypt data
d) To add complexity and uniqueness to hashed passwords

Answer: d) To add complexity and uniqueness to hashed passwords

20. Which cryptographic protocol is used to secure web communication over HTTPS?

a) SSL
b) TLS
c) SSH
d) IPsec

Answer: b) TLS (Transport Layer Security)

21. What is the key length of AES-256?

a) 128 bits
b) 192 bits
c) 256 bits
d) 512 bits

Answer: c) 256 bits

22. Which cryptographic algorithm is used for digital signatures?

a) AES
b) RSA
c) HMAC
d) MD5

Answer: b) RSA

23. Which cryptographic attack exploits weaknesses in the implementation or design of a cryptographic system?

a) Brute-force attack
b) Side-channel attack
c) Cryptanalysis
d) Man-in-the-middle attack

Answer: c) Cryptanalysis

24. What is the main advantage of asymmetric encryption?

a) Faster encryption and decryption process
b) Smaller key size required
c) Stronger security against brute-force attacks
d) Simpler key distribution process

Answer: c) Stronger security against brute-force attacks

25. Which encryption algorithm is based on the discrete logarithm problem?

a) AES
b) RSA
c) Diffie-Hellman
d) DES

Answer: c) Diffie-Hellman

26. What is the purpose of a certificate authority in public key infrastructure?

a) To encrypt and decrypt data
b) To generate random numbers
c) To issue and verify digital certificates
d) To prevent replay attacks

Answer: c) To issue and verify digital certificates

27. Which cryptographic algorithm is used for secure password storage?

a) RSA
b) Diffie-Hellman
c) AES
d) bcrypt

Answer: d) bcrypt

28. What is the purpose of a key derivation function in cryptography?

a) To generate random numbers
b) To encrypt and decrypt data
c) To derive a secret key from a password
d) To prevent replay attacks

Answer: c) To derive a secret key from a password

29. Which encryption algorithm is used for secure wireless communication?

a) WEP
b) WPA

c) SSL
d) SSH

Answer: b) WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

30. What is the purpose of an initialization vector in symmetric encryption?

a) To prevent replay attacks
b) To add complexity and uniqueness to encrypted data
c) To generate random numbers
d) To encrypt and decrypt data

Answer: b) To add complexity and uniqueness to encrypted data